Celtic languages

Celtic
Geographic
distribution:
Formerly widespread in Europe; today British Isles, Brittany, Patagonia and Nova Scotia
Linguistic classification: Indo-European
  • Celtic
Proto-language: Proto-Celtic
Subdivisions:
ISO 639-2 and 639-5: cel

Indo-European topics

Albanian · Armenian · Baltic
Celtic · Germanic · Greek
Indo-Iranian (Indo-Aryan, Iranian)
Italic · Slavic  

extinct: Anatolian · Paleo-Balkan (Dacian,
Phrygian, Thracian· Tocharian

Vocabulary · Phonology · Sound laws · Ablaut · Root · Noun · Verb
 
Europe: Balts · Slavs · Albanians · Italics · Celts · Germanic peoples · Greeks · Paleo-Balkans (Illyrians · Thracians · Dacians·

Asia: Anatolians (Hittites, Luwians)  · Armenians  · Indo-Iranians (Iranians · Indo-Aryans)  · Tocharians  

Homeland · Society · Religion
 
Abashevo culture · Afanasevo culture · Andronovo culture · Baden culture · Beaker culture · Catacomb culture · Cernavodă culture · Chasséen culture · Chernoles culture · Corded Ware culture · Cucuteni-Trypillian culture · Dnieper-Donets culture · Gumelniţa-Karanovo culture · Gushi culture · Karasuk culture · Kemi Oba culture · Khvalynsk culture · Kura-Araxes culture · Lusatian culture · Kurgan · Koban · Kura-Araxes  · Shulaveri-Shomu · Colchian · Trialeti  · Maykop culture · Leyla-Tepe culture · Jar-Burial · Khojaly-Gadabay  · Middle Dnieper culture  · Narva culture · Novotitorovka culture · Poltavka culture · Potapovka culture · Samara culture  · Seroglazovo culture  · Sredny Stog culture · Srubna culture · Terramare culture · Usatovo culture · Vučedol culture  · Yamna culture
 

The Celtic languages (pronounced /ˈkɛltɪk/ or /ˈsɛltɪk/[1]) are descended from Proto-Celtic, or "Common Celtic"; a branch of the greater Indo-European language family. The term "Celtic" was first used to describe this language group by Edward Lhuyd in 1707.[2]

Celtic languages are most commonly spoken on the north-western edge of Europe, notably in Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Brittany, Cornwall, and the Isle of Man, and can be found spoken on Cape Breton Island and in Patagonia. Some people speak Celtic languages in the other Celtic diaspora areas of the United States,[3] Canada, Australia,[4] and New Zealand.[5] In all these areas, the Celtic languages are now only spoken by minorities though there are continuing efforts at revitalization.

During the 1st millennium BCE, they were spoken across Europe, from the Bay of Biscay and the North Sea, up the Rhine and down the Danube to the Black Sea and the Upper Balkan Peninsula, and into Asia Minor (Galatia). The spread to Cape Breton and Patagonia occurred in modern times. Celtic languages were spoken in Australia before federation in 1901.

Contents

Living languages

SIL Ethnologue lists six "living" Celtic languages, of which four have retained a substantial number of native speakers. These are Welsh and Breton, descended from the British language, and Irish and Scottish Gaelic, descended from Old Irish.

The other two, Cornish and Manx, were spoken into modern times but later died as spoken community languages.[6][7][8] For both these languages, however, revitalization movements have led to the adoption of these languages by adults and children and produced some native speakers.[9][10]

Taken together, there were roughly one million native speakers of Celtic languages as of the 2000s.[11] In 2010, there were more than 1.4 million speakers of Celtic languages. [12]

Demographics

Language Native name Grouping Native speakers Total speakers Main area where the language is spoken Language body
Welsh Cymraeg Brythonic 450,000+ 750,000+:
Wales: 611,000[13]
England: 150,000[14]
Chubut Province, Argentina: 5,000[15]
Wales;
Chubut
Bwrdd yr Iaith Gymraeg (though not in Chubut)
Irish Gaeilge Goidelic Estimates of fully native speakers range from 40,000 to 80,000 people.[16][17][18][19] In the republic, just over 72,000 people use Irish as a daily language outside the education system.[20] Ireland (sovereign state) 538,283, United Kingdom 95,000, USA 18,000. (Irish census figures indicate 1,738,384 with some knowledge [21][22] but a significant percentage of these know only a little Irish.)[23] Ireland Foras na Gaeilge
Breton Brezhoneg Brythonic  ? 200,000 [24] Brittany Ofis ar Brezhoneg
Scottish Gaelic Gàidhlig Goidelic 58,552 as of 2001 [25] as well as an estimated 400-1000 native speakers on Cape Breton Island[26][27] 92,400 [28] Scotland Bòrd na Gàidhlig
Cornish Kernowek Brythonic 600 [29] 3,000 [30] Cornwall Keskowethyans an Taves Kernewek
Manx Gaelg Goidelic 100,[9][31] including a small number of children who are new native speakers[32] 1,700 [33] Isle of Man Coonceil ny Gaelgey

Mixed languages

Classifications

Proto-Celtic divided into four sub-families:

Scholarly handling of the Celtic languages has been rather argumentative owing to lack of much primary source data. Some scholars (such as Cowgill 1975; McCone 1991, 1992; and Schrijver 1995) distinguish Continental Celtic and Insular Celtic, arguing that the differences between the Goidelic and Brythonic languages arose after these split off from the Continental Celtic languages. Other scholars (such as Schmidt 1988) distinguish between P-Celtic and Q-Celtic, putting most of the Gaulish and Brythonic languages in the former group and the Goidelic and Celtiberian languages in the latter. The P-Celtic languages (also called Gallo-Brittonic) are sometimes seen (for example by Koch 1992) as a central innovating area as opposed to the more conservative peripheral Q-Celtic languages.

The Breton language is Brythonic, not Gaulish, though there may be some input from the latter.[47] When the Anglo-Saxons moved into Great Britain, several waves of the native Britons crossed the English Channel and landed in Brittany. They brought with them their Brythonic language, which evolved into Breton – still partially intelligible by modern Welsh and Cornish speakers.

In the P/Q classification schema, the first language to split off from Proto-Celtic was Gaelic. It has characteristics that some scholars see as archaic, but others see as also being in the Brythonic languages (see Schmidt). In the Insular/Continental classification schema, the split of the former into Gaelic and Brythonic is seen as being late.

The distinction of Celtic into these four sub-families most likely occurred about 900 BC according to Gray and Atkinson[48][49] but, because of estimation uncertainty, it could be any time between 1200 and 800 BC. However, they only considered Gaelic and Brythonic. The controversial paper by Forster and Toth[50] included Gaulish and put the break-up much earlier at 3200 BC ± 1500 years. They support the Insular Celtic hypothesis. The early Celts were commonly associated with the archaeological Urnfield culture, the Hallstatt culture, and the La Tène culture, though the earlier assumption of association between language and culture is now considered to be less strong.

There are two main competing schemata of categorization. The older schema, argued for by Schmidt (1988) among others, links Gaulish with Brythonic in a P-Celtic node, originally leaving just Goidelic as Q-Celtic. The difference between P and Q languages is the treatment of Proto-Celtic *, which became *p in the P-Celtic languages but *k in Goidelic. An example is the Proto-Celtic verb root *kʷrin- "to buy", which became pryn- in Welsh but cren- in Old Irish. However, a classification based on a single feature is seen as risky by its critics, particularly as the sound change occurs in other language groups (especially the Osco-Umbrian and Greek).

The other schema, defended for example by McCone (1996), links Goidelic and Brythonic together as an Insular Celtic branch, while Gaulish and Celtiberian are referred to as Continental Celtic. According to this theory, the "P-Celtic" sound change of [kʷ] to [p] occurred independently or areally. The proponents of the Insular Celtic hypothesis point to other shared innovations among Insular Celtic languages, including inflected prepositions, VSO word order, and the lenition of intervocalic [m] to [β̃], a nasalised voiced bilabial fricative (an extremely rare sound). There is, however, no assumption that the Continental Celtic languages descend from a common "Proto-Continental Celtic" ancestor. Rather, in the Insular/Continental schema, Celtiberian is usually considered to be the first branch to split from Proto-Celtic, and the remaining group would later have split into Gaulish and Insular Celtic.

There are legitimate scholarly arguments in favour of both the Insular Celtic hypothesis and the P-Celtic/Q-Celtic hypothesis. Proponents of each schema dispute the accuracy and usefulness of the other's categories. However, since the 1970s the division into Insular and Continental Celtic has become the more widely held view (Cowgill 1975; McCone 1991, 1992; Schrijver 1995), but in the middle of the 1980s, the P-Celtic/Q-Celtic hypothesis found new supporters (Lambert 1994), because of the inscription on the Larzac piece of lead (1983), the analysis of which reveals another common phonetical innovation -nm- > -nu (Gaelic ainm / Gaulish anuana, Old Welsh enuein "names"), that is less accidental than only one. The discovery of a third common innovation, would allow the specialists to come to the conclusion of a Gallo-Brythonic dialect (Schmidt 1986; Fleuriot 1986).

It must be noted that the interpretation of this and further evidence is still quite contested, and the main argument in favour of Insular Celtic is connected with the development of the verbal morphology and the syntax in Irish and British Celtic, which Schumacher regards as convincing, while he considers the P-Celtic/Q-Celtic division unimportant and treats Gallo-Brittonic as an outdated hypothesis.[36]

When referring only to the modern Celtic languages, since no Continental Celtic language has living descendants, "Q-Celtic" is equivalent to "Goidelic" and "P-Celtic" is equivalent to "Brythonic".

Within the Indo-European family, the Celtic languages have sometimes been placed with the Italic languages in a common Italo-Celtic subfamily, a hypothesis that is now largely discarded, in favour of the assumption of language contact between pre-Celtic and pre-Italic communities.

How the family tree of the Celtic languages is ordered depends on which hypothesis is used:

Insular/Continental hypothesis

P-Celtic/Q-Celtic hypothesis

Characteristics of Celtic languages

Although there are many differences between the individual Celtic languages, they do show many family resemblances. While none of these characteristics are necessarily unique to the Celtic languages, there are few if any other languages which possess them all. They include:

Examples:
(Irish) Ná bac le mac an bhacaigh is ní bhacfaidh mac an bhacaigh leat.
(Literal translation) Don't bother with son the beggar's and not will-bother son the beggar's with-you.

(Welsh) pedwar ar bymtheg a phedwar ugain
(literally) four on fifteen and four twenties

Comparison table

Welsh Cornish Breton Irish Scottish Gaelic Manx English
gwenynen gwenenen gwenanenn beach seillean, beach shellan bee
cadair kador kador cathaoir cathair caair chair
caws keus keuz cáis càis(e) caashey cheese
tu fas, tu allan yn-mes er-maez amuigh a-muigh mooie outside
cwympo kodha kouezhañ tit(im) tuit(eam) tuitt(ym) (to) fall
gafr gaver gavr gabhar gobhar goayr goat
chi ti teach, tigh taigh thie house
gwefus gweus gweuz liopa bile, lip meill lip (anatomical)
aber aber aber inbhear inbhir inver mouth of a river, estuary
rhif, nifer niver niver uimhir àireamh earroo number
gellygen, peren peren perenn piorra peur/piar peear pear
ysgol skol skol scoil sgoil scoill school
ysmygu megi mogediñ tobac a chaitheamh smocadh toghtaney/smookal (to) smoke
seren steren steredenn réalta reul rollage star
heddiw hedhyw hiziv inniu an-diugh jiu today
chwibanu hwibana c'hwibanat feadaíl fead fed (to) whistle
chwarel mengleudh mengleuz cairéal coireall, cuaraidh quarral quarry
llawn leun leun lán làn lane full
arian arhans arc'hant airgead airgead argid silver
arian mona, arhans moneiz airgead airgead argid money

Examples

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Notes

  1. ^ "American Heritage Dictionary. Celtic: kel-tik, sel". Dictionary.reference.com. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/celtic. Retrieved 2011-08-19. 
  2. ^ Cunliffe, Barry W. 2003. The Celts: a very short introduction. P.48
  3. ^ "Language by State - Scottish Gaelic" on Modern Language Association website. Retrieved 27 December 2007
  4. ^ "Languages Spoken At Home" from Australian Government Office of Multicultural Interests website. Retrieved 27 December 2007
  5. ^ Languages Spoken:Total Responses from Statistics New Zealand website. Retrieved 5 August 2008
  6. ^ Koch, John T. (2006). Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 34, 365–366, 529, 973, 1053. http://books.google.com.au/books?id=f899xH_quaMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Celtic+Culture:+A+Historical+Encyclopedia#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved June 15, 2010. 
  7. ^ "A brief history of the Cornish language". Maga Kernow. http://www.magakernow.org.uk/index.aspx?articleid=38590#Revival. 
  8. ^ Beresford Ellis, Peter (1990, 1998, 2005). The Story of the Cornish Language. Tor Mark Press. pp. 20–22. ISBN 0-85025-371-3. 
  9. ^ a b Published on Thu Mar 20 15:54:30 GMT 2008. "Fockle ny ghaa: schoolchildren take charge". Iomtoday.co.im. http://www.iomtoday.co.im/manx-language/Fockle-ny-ghaa-schoolchildren-take.3901786.jp. Retrieved 2011-08-19. 
  10. ^ "'South West:TeachingEnglish:British Council:BBC". BBC/British Council website (BBC). 2010. http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/uk-languages/south-west. Retrieved 2010-02-09. 
  11. ^ "Celtic Languages". Ethnologue. http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=1164-16. Retrieved 9 March 2010. 
  12. ^ Crystal, David (2010). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521736503. 
  13. ^ "2004 Welsh Language Use Survey: the report - Welsh Language Board". http://www.byig-wlb.org.uk/english/publications/publications/332.doc. Retrieved 2010-05-23. 
  14. ^ United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. "Refworld | World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - United Kingdom : Welsh". UNHCR. http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/topic,463af2212,488f25df2,49749c8cc,0.html. Retrieved 2010-05-23. 
  15. ^ "h2g2 - Y Wladfa - The Welsh in Patagonia". BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A1163503. Retrieved 2010-05-23. 
  16. ^ "| Irish Examiner". Archives.tcm.ie. 2004-11-24. http://archives.tcm.ie/irishexaminer/2004/11/24/story517225942.asp. Retrieved 2011-08-19. 
  17. ^ Christina Bratt Paulston. Linguistic Minorities in Multilingual Settings: Implications for Language Policies. J. Benjamins Pub. Co. p. 81. ISBN 1556193475. 
  18. ^ Pierce, David (2000). Irish Writing in the Twentieth Century. Cork University Press. p. 1140. ISBN 1859182089. 
  19. ^ Ó hÉallaithe, Donncha (1999). Cuisle. 
  20. ^ http://www.cso.ie/census/census2006results/volume_9/volume_9_press_release.pdf
  21. ^ "Beyond 20/20 WDS - Table View". Beyond2020.cso.ie. 2007-07-16. http://beyond2020.cso.ie/Census/TableViewer/tableView.aspx?ReportId=75607. Retrieved 2011-08-19. 
  22. ^ NISRA (2005-04-14). "language". Nisranew.nisra.gov.uk. http://www.nisranew.nisra.gov.uk/census/Census2001Output/UnivariateTables/uv_tables1.html#irish. Retrieved 2011-08-19. 
  23. ^ Colin H. Williams (1991). Linguistic minorities, society, and territory:. p. 21. 
  24. ^ The French census of 2001 recorded about 270,000 speakers, with a yearly decline of about 10,000 speakers. The site oui au breton estimates a number of about 200,000 speakers as of 2008.
  25. ^ "UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger, 2010". Unesco.org. http://www.unesco.org/culture/languages-atlas/en/atlasmap/language-id-411.html. Retrieved 2011-08-19. 
  26. ^ "CHIN/RCIP - Festivities". Virtualmuseum.ca. 1999-04-19. http://www.virtualmuseum.ca/Exhibitions/Festiva1/en/uccb/cont2/index.html. Retrieved 2011-08-19. 
  27. ^ "de beste bron van informatie over highlandclearances. Deze website is te koop!". highlandclearances.info. http://www.highlandclearances.info/clearances/postclearances_influenceabroad_canada.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-19. 
  28. ^ "Mixed report on Gaelic language". BBC News. 2005-10-10. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/low/scotland/4326424.stm. Retrieved 2011-08-19. 
  29. ^ some 600 children brought up as bilingual native speakers (2003 estimate, SIL Ethnologue).
  30. ^ s About 2,000 fluent speakers. "'South West:TeachingEnglish:British Council:BBC". BBC/British Council website (BBC). 2010. http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/uk-languages/south-west. Retrieved 2010-02-09. 
  31. ^ "Anyone here speak Jersey?". Independent.co.uk. 2002-04-11. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/education/education-news/anyone-here-speak-jersey-657175.html. Retrieved 2011-08-19. 
  32. ^ "Documentation for ISO 639 identifier: glv". Sil.org. 2008-01-14. http://www.sil.org/iso639-3/documentation.asp?id=glv. Retrieved 2011-08-19. 
  33. ^ "2006 Official Census, Isle of Man". Gov.im. 2006-04-23. http://www.gov.im/treasury/economic/census/2006/. Retrieved 2011-08-19. 
  34. ^ "Shelta". Ethnologue. http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=sth. Retrieved 9 March 2010. 
  35. ^ "ROMLEX: Romani dialects". Romani.uni-graz.at. http://romani.uni-graz.at/romlex/dialects.xml. Retrieved 2011-08-19. 
  36. ^ a b Schumacher, Stefan; Schulze-Thulin, Britta; aan de Wiel, Caroline (2004) (in German). Die keltischen Primärverben. Ein vergleichendes, etymologisches und morphologisches Lexikon. Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachen und Kulturen der Universität Innsbruck. pp. 84–87. ISBN 3-85124-692-6. 
  37. ^ Cólera, Carlos Jordán (March 16, 2007). "The Celts in the Iberian Peninsula:Celtiberian". e-Keltoi 6: 749–750. http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_17/jordan_6_17.pdf. Retrieved 16 June 2010. 
  38. ^ Koch, John T. (2006). Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 481. http://books.google.com.au/books?id=f899xH_quaMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Celtic+Culture:+A+Historical+Encyclopedia#v=snippet&q=hispano-celtic&f=false. 
  39. ^ "Ethnographic Map of Pre-Roman Iberia (circa 200 B.C.)". Arkeotavira.com. http://www.arkeotavira.com/Mapas/Iberia/Populi.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-19. 
  40. ^ Prósper, B. M. (2002). Lenguas y religiones prerromanas del occidente de la península ibérica. Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca. pp. 422–427. ISBN 84-7800-818-7. 
  41. ^ Villar F., B. M. Prósper. (2005). Váscos, Celtas e Indoeuropeos: genes y lenguas. Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca. pp. 333-350. ISBN 84-7800-530-7.
  42. ^ a b c Koch, John T (2010). Celtic from the West Chapter 9: Paradigm Shift? Interpreting Tartessian as Celtic. Oxbow Books, Oxford, UK. pp. 187–295. ISBN 978-1-84217-410-4. 
  43. ^ a b c Koch, John T (2011). Tartessian 2: The Inscription of Mesas do Castelinho ro and the Verbal Complex. Preliminaries to Historical Phonology. Oxbow Books, Oxford, UK. pp. 1–198. ISBN 978-1-907029-07-3. http://www.oxbowbooks.com/bookinfo.cfm/ID/91450//Location/Oxbow. 
  44. ^ Broderick, George (2010). "Die vorrömischen Sprachen auf der iberischen Halbinsel". In Hinrichs, Uwe (in German). Das Handbuch der Eurolinguistik (1st ed.). Wiesbaden, Germany: Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 304–305. ISBN 3447059281. http://books.google.com.au/books?id=3VDH7oKtViYC&pg=PA305&lpg=PA305&dq=LOGORO+Tartessische+Inschriften+Die+vorr%C3%B6mischen+Sprachen+auf+der+iberischen#v=onepage&q&f=false. 
  45. ^ Kenneth H. Jackson suggested that there were two Pictish languages, a pre-Indo-European one and a Pritenic Celtic one. This has been challenged by some scholars. See Katherine Forsyth's "Language in Pictland: the case against 'non-Indo-European Pictish'" EtextPDF (27.8 MB). See also the introduction by James & Taylor to the "Index of Celtic and Other Elements in W. J. Watson's 'The History of the Celtic Place-names of Scotland'" EtextPDF (172 KB). Compare also the treatment of Pictish in Price's The Languages of Britain (1984) with his Languages in Britain & Ireland (2000).
  46. ^ Kenneth Jackson used the term "Brittonic" for the form of the British language after the changes in the 6th century.
  47. ^ Barbour and Carmichael, Stephen and Cathie (2000). Language and nationalism in Europe. Oxford University Press. p. 56. ISBN 9780198236719. http://books.google.com/?id=1ixmu8Iga7gC&pg=PA56&lpg=PA56&dq=Breton+Gaulish+words&q=Breton%20Gaulish%20words. 
  48. ^ Gray and Atkinson, RD; Atkinson, QD (2003). "Language-tree divergence times support the Anatolian theory of Indo-European origin". Nature 426 (6965): 435–439. Bibcode 2003Natur.426..435G. doi:10.1038/nature02029. PMID 14647380. 
  49. ^ Rexova, K.; Frynta, D and Zrzavy, J. (2003). "Cladistic analysis of languages: Indo-European classification based on lexicostatistical data". Cladistics 19 (2): 120–127. doi:10.1111/j.1096-0031.2003.tb00299.x. 
  50. ^ Forster, Peter; Toth, Alfred (2003). Toward a phylogenetic chronology of ancient Gaulish, Celtic, and Indo-European. The National Academy of Sciences. 

See also

References

External links